Police and military dogs: criminal detection, forensic evidence, and judicial admissibility

section I. Police and military dogs in the Twenty-first Century 1. Development of police and military dog functions Canine functions Canine behavior and the alert Dog and handler as a team Canine evidence Lack of judicial uniformity Economics of canine work Dangers of police work Military applications 2. Canine biology and behavior Genetics Canine DNA as evidence Canine olfaction Canine-human communication Sleep patterns

section II. Tracking, trailing, and scent identification 3. History and judicial acceptance of tracking and trailing evidence Tracking evidence Qualifications of the handler Breeds appropriate for tracking Pedigree Kennel Club registration Bloodhound myth Training Reliability Period of reliability Weather conditions Records and certification Corroboration Jury instructions Appellate review 4. Scientific analysis of tracking, trailing, and scent identification / John J. Ensminger and Tadeusz Jezierski Human odor Odors of the trail Collecting scent and scent enhancement Contamination Research on tracking and trailing Judicial perspectives on scientific aspects of tracking 5. Tracking and trailing in criminal investigations and prosecutions Dogs at the crime scene Tracking from secondary locations Odors of multiple individuals Circumstances of the trail Scenting first to suspect Contamination of the trail Identifications 6. Judicial admissibility of scent lineup evidence Breeds for scent lineup work Training Training in Holland Handler's qualifications Accuracy rates Corroboration Jury instructions Judicial perspectives on scientific reliability of scent identifications Foreign judicial perspectives on scent identification 7. Scent lineups in criminal investigations and prosecutions / John J. Ensminger and Tadeusz Jezierski Beginning of formal identification procedures Scent lineups of people Cueing Scent matches Scientifically conducted scent lineups FBI use of Dutch procedures Guidelines of professional organizations

section III. Detection functions 8. Judicial admissibility of canine detection evidence Breed preferences Training Certification Reliability Handler as an expert Alerting Types of narcotic sniffs 9. Scientific issues in detection functions Recognition of illegal substances and secondary chemicals Cocaine Detection of cocaine on currency Methamphetamine Ecstasy Dogs compared to other technologies Scientific standards and detection evidence 10. Automobile sniffs Illinois v. Caballes Alerts during the initial reason for the stop Alert outside a car providing probable cause for a search inside Alerts at secondary locations Sniffs at checkpoints, roadblocks, and prison entrances Sniffs of parked vehicles Inventory search after an arrest Consent in vehicle searches 11. Sniffs of luggage, transportation facilities, and hotels U.S. v. Place State constitutions and Place situations Reasons for investigatory stops Conduct of the sniff Buses at immigration checkpoints Luggage lineups Delays for sniffs Searches of passenger compartments of trains Consent to luggage searches Hotels and motels Cruise ships Private vessels Private airplanes 12. Mail and package sniffs Reasons for investigations of packages Postal inspections Package lineups Length of detention Multiple sniffs 13. Sniffs of storage areas, cargo, and commercial spaces Warehouse and storage locker sniffs Safe deposit boxes Cargo containers 14. Residential sniffs Sniffs in common areas of apartment buildings Yards of houses Front doors of houses Sniffs on military bases 15. Currency sniffs Unreasonably long seizures Evidentiary value of a dog's alert Reliability of dog questioned Sniffs where connection to drug trafficking was not established Currency sniffs 16. School sniffs / John J. Ensminger and L.E. Papet Sniffs of students Locker and parking lot sniffs Immunity 17. Explosives, landmine, and bioweapons detection / John J. Ensminger, John Grubbs, and L.E. Papet Training Requirements for handlers Reliability Visual factors in explosives detection Working in freezing temperatures Certification Firearms detection Explosives alerts in case law Landmines Chemicals in landmines Remote mine detection dogs Improvised explosive devices Bioweapons detection Comparing dogs and explosives detection technology 18. Accelerant detection dogs Research on accelerant detection Dog outperforms technology on detecting gasoline Foundational elements for accelerant detection alerts Training Reliability Government standard Corroboration Canine alerts without laboratory verification 19. Cadaver dogs / John J. Ensminger, L.E. Papet Scientific aspects of cadaver dog work Elements of admissibility Training Handler qualification Circumstances of a search Helping get a confession Cold cases Interference by a police officer Corroboration Scent lineups with cadaver dogs Scenting tracking dogs from cadavers

section IV. Apprehension and rescue functions

20. Suspect apprehension and bite issues

Apprehension styles

Breeds in apprehension work

Training

Deadly force

Excessive force

Circumstances of the apprehension

Bites during struggles

Bites of bystanders

Sadistic police officers

Crowd control

Government policies

Application of dog bite laws to police dogs

Importance of gear in apprehension work

21. Search and rescue dogs

Search and rescue work

Training

Clothing as distraction

Certification

Using dogs trained in other functions

State laws on search and rescue and emergency service dogs

Therapy dogs at disaster sites

Appendix A. U.S. police canine associations

Appendix B. Bibliography

Appendix C. Federal and State cases cited.